Vitamin D intake and recommendations among WIC infants
What it found
In a national sample of US infants in WIC, most did not meet the vitamin D recommendation, and only 6 to 12% received supplements.
Breastfed infants were less likely to meet the recommendation than formula-fed infants.
What they found
Studies in people
Meeting the recommendation
Between 16% and 36% of infants met the vitamin D recommendation over the first year. By month 13, 35% met it.
Supplement use
Only 6% to 12% of infants received vitamin D supplements at any time point. Among those supplemented, 69% to 87% met the recommendation.
Breastfed vs formula-fed
Breastfed infants were less likely to meet the recommendation than formula-fed infants at all months except month 1. Among breastfed infants without supplements, 0% to 7% met the recommendation.
Factors linked to supplementation
Mothers born outside the US were more likely to give supplements. Infants who were second or later born were less likely to receive supplements.
Factors linked to meeting recommendation
Female infants were less likely to meet the recommendation than males. Infants of non-Hispanic Black or non-Hispanic Other mothers were more likely to meet it than those of non-Hispanic White mothers.
What the authors conclude
“Among a national sample of infants participating in WIC between 2013-2015, a high proportion were not meeting the current vitamin D recommendation.”
Also in their conclusions
- They say that a high proportion of infants in WIC were not meeting the current vitamin D recommendation.
- They advise that the WIC program is one resource for promoting strategies to increase the number of American infants meeting vitamin D recommendations, but a coordinated approach involving other health care providers is likely needed.
- They call for future research on the reasons for lack of supplementation and the clinical impact of low vitamin D intake.
How it was done
Breastmilk is low in vitamin D, and public health recommendations say breastfed infants should be supplemented with 10 mcg of vitamin D daily. The authors wanted to see how many infants in WIC met this recommendation and what factors were linked to supplementation and meeting it.
They analyzed data from the 2013-2015 WIC Infant Toddler Feeding Practices Study-2, a national study of US infants. They looked at vitamin D intake from diet and supplements at months 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13, and checked whether infants met the 10 mcg daily recommendation.
What it can’t tell you
- This study looked at reported vitamin D intake, not blood levels, so it cannot show how many infants were actually deficient.
- It can show links between factors like feeding type and meeting the recommendation, but it cannot prove cause and effect.
- The data are from 2013-2015, so they may not reflect current intakes.
Who paid
- Funding
- Funded by Intramural NIH HHS (from the PubMed record).
- Conflicts
- Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure: All authors have no conflicts of interest
- Authors work at
- University of Georgia, GA; National Institutes of Health, MD; George Mason University, VA
The paper
- Title
- Vitamin D Intake and Meeting Recommendations Among Infants Participating in WIC Nationally
- Type
- Study
- Evidence
- Studies in people
- Summarised from
- Full text
- Cite
- Gallo S, Gahche J, Kitsantas P, et al (2022). Vitamin D Intake and Meeting Recommendations Among Infants Participating in WIC Nationally. Journal of nutrition education and behavior. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2021.11.009Free full textPubMed 35288058DOI
Summary written 26 Sep 2026. Check it against the paper before it changes what you eat. How we summarise papers · Report an error