Sodium intake, blood pressure and health risks
What it found
High dietary sodium is linked to higher blood pressure and to heart disease, stroke, stomach cancer, kidney stones and weaker bones.
The authors also note that sodium may affect the immune system and gut bacteria.
What they found
Studies in people
Blood pressure
Several analyses of randomised controlled trials found that cutting sodium lowered blood pressure in people with and without high blood pressure. One analysis found the link between sodium intake and blood pressure was straight-line, starting from as low as 0.4 g a day.
Death and stroke
The Trial of Hypertension Prevention found a link between usual sodium intake and death from any cause in a large group of American adults followed for a median of 24 years. Earlier analyses of studies following people over time found higher salt intake was linked to a greater risk of stroke.
Other disease risks
A high dietary salt intake was linked to a higher risk of stomach cancer, kidney stones, lower bone mineral density and osteoporosis.
Acute salt poisoning
Cases of acute toxicity from swallowing large amounts of salt, up to 10 g in children and 25 g in adults, were linked to a 50% risk of death from neurological damage caused by sudden high sodium in the blood.
Studies in people and animals
Immune system and gut
Recent experimental and clinical studies found that sodium intake affects the immune system, by influencing how macrophages and lymphocytes develop, and by changing the make-up of gut bacteria.
Other findings
How much people eat
A review of 80 studies from 34 countries reported daily sodium intake in adults ranging from 2.1 to 6.2 g a day. Bread and bakery products, cereals and grains, meat and dairy are the main sources in most countries.
What the authors conclude
“Recent studies highlighted the relevance of salt intake reduction for all-cause mortality risk and, in particular, for stroke.”
Also in their conclusions
- They report that a high habitual sodium intake is a leading risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular disease in most countries.
- They note that recent studies highlight the relevance of salt intake reduction for all-cause mortality risk and, in particular, for stroke.
- They state that sodium also appears to affect the activity of the immune system by influencing the gut microbiota composition and the macrophage and lymphocyte differentiation.
How it was done
The authors wanted to set out how sodium is handled by the body, what intakes agencies recommend, where dietary sodium comes from, and what recent research says about its health effects.
They reviewed existing research on sodium, including national and international intake recommendations, food sources of sodium, and studies in people on blood pressure, death rates and disease risks.
What it can’t tell you
- Many of the links between sodium and diseases come from studies that follow people over time, which can show a link but not prove cause and effect.
- Some studies suggesting a J-shaped link between sodium and health outcomes were criticised by most experts for weak methods, such as inaccurate measurement of sodium intake and a strong risk of confounding and reverse causality.
Who paid
- Conflicts
- Conflict of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest.
- Authors work at
- Federico II University, Italy
The paper
- Title
- Sodium
- Type
- ReviewThe authors read earlier studies and describe what they found. It isn’t a new study.
- Evidence
- Studies in people · animals · lab
- Summarised from
- Full text
- Cite
- Strazzullo P, Abate V (2025). Sodium. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.). doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2025.100409Free full textPubMed 40086509DOI
Summary written 26 Sep 2026. Check it against the paper before it changes what you eat. How we summarise papers · Report an error